The living science beneath every property.

Warm-season turfgrass

Bermudagrass

Cynodon dactylon & hybrids

Warm-season bermudagrass spreads by stolons and rhizomes, grows best in sun and loses color in cold weather.

Warm-season turfgrass

Zoysiagrass

Zoysia japonica / matrella

Dense warm-season zoysiagrass establishes slowly and turns brown during winter dormancy.

Warm-season turfgrass

Seashore Paspalum

Paspalum vaginatum

Seashore paspalum is salt-tolerant warm-season turf requiring professional-level management; the broader Paspalum label needs species confirmation.

Warm-season turfgrass

St. Augustinegrass

Stenotaphrum secundatum

Coarse-textured warm-season turf that tolerates moderate shade and spreads by stolons.

Warm-season turfgrass

Kikuyugrass

Pennisetum clandestinum

Vigorous warm-season kikuyugrass spreads aggressively and can be invasive; heavy thatch complicates mowing.

Warm-season native turfgrass

Buffalograss

Bouteloua dactyloides

Great Plains warm-season grass spreading by stolons; established stands can be low-input, but establishment requires care.

Cool-season turfgrass

Creeping Bentgrass

Agrostis stolonifera

Bentgrasses are cool-season turf; creeping bentgrass tolerates low cutting on specialist sports surfaces and needs intensive management.

Cool-season turfgrass

Annual Bluegrass (Poa annua)

Poa annua

Poa annua is a cool-season, prolific seeder that can persist under low mowing; annual and perennial forms occur.

Cool-season turfgrass

Kentucky Bluegrass

Poa pratensis

Kentucky bluegrass is a cool-season grass forming dense turf and spreading by rhizomes; summer heat can slow growth.

Cool-season turfgrass

Perennial Ryegrass

Lolium perenne

Ryegrasses establish rapidly; perennial ryegrass is a cool-season bunchgrass and annual ryegrass is also used for winter overseeding.

Cool-season turfgrass

Tall Fescue

Festuca arundinacea

Fescue is a group designation; tall fescue is generally bunch-forming while fine fescues include creeping and clump-forming species.

Cool-season turfgrass

Fine Fescue

Festuca rubra & spp.

Fine fescues are narrow-leaved cool-season grasses, including creeping and clump-forming species, often used in shaded turf mixtures.

Warm-season bermudagrass cultivar

328 Tifgreen

Cynodon dactylon × C. transvaalensis 'Tifgreen'

Older fine-textured hybrid developed for closely mown turf.

Warm-season bermudagrass cultivar

419 Tifway

Cynodon dactylon × C. transvaalensis 'Tifway'

Dense hybrid widely used for sports fields and golf fairways.

Unverified bermudagrass catalog designation

AG-429 Bermudagrass

AG-429 is the NC State publication number for the Bermudagrass Athletic Field Maintenance Calendar, not an independently verified cultivar name. Manage confirmed bermudagrass according to its actual cultivar and site.

Warm-season pasture and utility grass

Bahiagrass

Paspalum notatum

Bahiagrass is relatively low-input turf with an extensive root system, adapted to infertile sandy soils.

Unverified bermudagrass catalog designation

Bandera Bermuda

Bandera Bermuda is a West Coast Turf commercial bermudagrass product. Independent cultivar identity and comparative performance are not established by the supplier sheet.

Cool-season grass group

Bent Grass

Agrostis spp.

Bentgrasses are cool-season turf; creeping bentgrass tolerates low cutting on specialist sports surfaces and needs intensive management.

Warm-season species group

Common Bermuda

Cynodon dactylon

Warm-season bermudagrass spreads by stolons and rhizomes, grows best in sun and loses color in cold weather.

Unverified bermudagrass catalog designation

Bermuda Eagle

Bermuda Eagle is a catalog label whose exact cultivar identity is not established here; do not infer a registered cultivar or ultradwarf performance from the name.

Mixed or alternative turf designation

Bermuda/Paspalum

A mixed or alternative turf label, not evidence of an interspecific hybrid; identify the actual grasses present.

Cool-season fine turfgrass

Browntop Bentgrass

Agrostis capillaris

Colonial or browntop bentgrass is fine-textured turf suited to cool, humid conditions, with limited heat and water-stress tolerance.

Warm-season bermudagrass cultivar

Celebration Bermudagrass

Cynodon dactylon 'Celebration'

Dark blue-green common-type selection used in warm-season lawns and sports turf.

Warm-season bermudagrass cultivar

Champion Bermuda

Cynodon dactylon × C. transvaalensis 'Champion'

Ultradwarf hybrid selected for intensively managed putting greens.

Regional warm-season turf name

Couch Grass

Cynodon dactylon and hybrids

Warm-season bermudagrass spreads by stolons and rhizomes, grows best in sun and loses color in cold weather.

Broadleaf ground cover

Dichondra

Dichondra spp.; often D. repens or D. micrantha

Dichondra is a low-growing perennial ground cover, not a turfgrass; mowing is optional.

Commercial bentgrass blend designation

Dominant Plus Bentgrass

Agrostis stolonifera, subject to blend label

Dominant Plus is a commercial creeping bentgrass seed blend, not a single cultivar. A historical supplier sheet lists Brighton, Providence and SR 1119; verify the current seed label.

Engineered equine footing or base

Ebb n Flow (Equine)

Engineered equestrian surface designation, not a grass species; verify installed construction and materials from site documentation.

Cool-season grass group

Fescue

Festuca spp. and allied turf genera

Fescue is a group designation; tall fescue is generally bunch-forming while fine fescues include creeping and clump-forming species.

Engineered equine footing or base

Full Draining Base

Engineered equestrian surface designation, not a grass species; verify installed construction and materials from site documentation.

Unverified bermudagrass catalog designation

G12 Champion Bermuda

G12 Champion Bermuda is a catalog label whose exact cultivar identity is not established here; do not infer a registered cultivar or ultradwarf performance from the name.

Engineered equine footing or base

GGT (Fiber/Sand)

Engineered equestrian surface designation, not a grass species; verify installed construction and materials from site documentation.

Warm-season vigorous turfgrass

Kikuyu

Cenchrus clandestinus (syn. Pennisetum clandestinum)

Vigorous warm-season kikuyugrass spreads aggressively and can be invasive; heavy thatch complicates mowing.

Warm-season bermudagrass cultivar

Latitude 36

Cynodon dactylon × C. transvaalensis 'Latitude 36'

Fine-textured hybrid selected in Oklahoma for transition-zone turf.

Warm-season bermudagrass cultivar

Miniverde (Dwarf Bermuda)

Cynodon dactylon × C. transvaalensis 'MiniVerde'

Ultradwarf hybrid intended for very closely managed putting surfaces.

Warm-season bermudagrass cultivar

NorthBridge Bermuda

Cynodon dactylon × C. transvaalensis 'NorthBridge'

Oklahoma-developed hybrid used where winter persistence matters.

Mixed landscape management category

Ornamental Landscape

A mixed landscape category, not a species or uniform irrigation requirement.

Seasonal dual-grass turf system

Overseeded Bermudagrass

Cynodon spp. with cool-season overseed

Overseeding introduces cool-season grass, commonly ryegrass, into bermudagrass for winter cover.

Grass genus designation

Paspalum

Paspalum spp.

Seashore paspalum is salt-tolerant warm-season turf requiring professional-level management; the broader Paspalum label needs species confirmation.

Warm-season seashore paspalum cultivar

Platinum TE Paspalum

Paspalum vaginatum 'Platinum TE'

Fine-textured selection used across intensively managed coastal golf turf.

Cool-season annual or perennial bluegrass

Poa Annua

Poa annua

Poa annua is a cool-season, prolific seeder that can persist under low mowing; annual and perennial forms occur.

Cool-season creeping bentgrass cultivar

Pure Distinction Bentgrass

Agrostis stolonifera 'Pure Distinction'

Pure Distinction is a creeping bentgrass cultivar included as PST-OJO in the 2008 NTEP putting-green test. Trial results describe particular locations, years and management, not universal superiority.

Cool-season stoloniferous grass

Roughstalk Bluegrass

Poa trivialis

Roughstalk bluegrass is a shade-tolerant cool-season perennial spreading primarily by stolons, with poor drought tolerance.

Cool-season grass group

Ryegrass

Lolium spp.

Ryegrasses establish rapidly; perennial ryegrass is a cool-season bunchgrass and annual ryegrass is also used for winter overseeding.

Warm-season bermudagrass cultivar

Santa Ana Hybrid Bermuda

Cynodon dactylon × C. transvaalensis 'Santa Ana'

Fine-textured hybrid associated with southwestern US fine turf.

Warm-season coarse-textured turfgrass

St. Augustine

Stenotaphrum secundatum

Coarse-textured warm-season turf that tolerates moderate shade and spreads by stolons.

Warm-season bermudagrass cultivar

Tahoma 31

Cynodon dactylon × C. transvaalensis 'Tahoma 31'

Hybrid selected for improved cold adaptation and turf quality.

Warm-season bermudagrass cultivar

TifDwarf Bermuda

Cynodon dactylon × C. transvaalensis 'Tifdwarf'

Dwarf hybrid historically used for putting greens, selected as an off-type from Tifgreen. Its fine canopy requires close mowing, careful thatch management and clean vegetative stock to maintain putting-surface uniformity.

Warm-season bermudagrass cultivar

TifEagle Bermuda

Cynodon dactylon × C. transvaalensis 'TifEagle'

Ultradwarf hybrid selected for high-quality putting greens.

Warm-season bermudagrass cultivar

TifSport Bermuda

Cynodon dactylon × C. transvaalensis 'TifSport'

Hybrid developed for sports turf and golf fairways.

Warm-season bermudagrass cultivar

TifTuf Bermuda

Cynodon dactylon × C. transvaalensis 'TifTuf'

Hybrid selected for drought performance while maintaining turf quality.

Warm-season bermudagrass cultivar

Tifway

Cynodon dactylon × C. transvaalensis 'Tifway'

Established hybrid for dense fairway and athletic-field turf.

Warm-season bermudagrass cultivar

Tifway 2

Cynodon dactylon × C. transvaalensis 'Tifway II'

Distinct mutant selection derived from Tifway for fine sports and golf turf.

Warm-season fine-textured zoysia cultivar

Zeon Zoysia

Zoysia matrella 'Zeon'

Zeon is a Zoysia matrella cultivar included in published shade and large-patch studies. Results are conditional on the tested site and management; deep-shade performance and disease resistance must not be assumed.

Warm-season dense turf group

Zoysia

Zoysia spp.

Dense warm-season zoysiagrass establishes slowly and turns brown during winter dormancy.

Physical soil profile descriptor

Sand Profile

Sand is a USDA fine-earth texture class defined by sand, silt and clay proportions; structure, mineralogy and horizons also control behavior.

Clay-rich profile descriptor

Clay Profile

Clay is a USDA fine-earth texture class defined by sand, silt and clay proportions; structure, mineralogy and horizons also control behavior.

Physical soil profile descriptor

Loam Profile

Loam is a USDA fine-earth texture class defined by sand, silt and clay proportions; structure, mineralogy and horizons also control behavior.

Physical soil profile descriptor

Silt Profile

Silt Loam is a USDA fine-earth texture class defined by sand, silt and clay proportions; structure, mineralogy and horizons also control behavior.

Soil texture class

Sand

Sand is a USDA fine-earth texture class defined by sand, silt and clay proportions; structure, mineralogy and horizons also control behavior.

Soil texture class

Loamy Sand

Loamy Sand is a USDA fine-earth texture class defined by sand, silt and clay proportions; structure, mineralogy and horizons also control behavior.

Soil texture class

Sandy Loam

Sandy Loam is a USDA fine-earth texture class defined by sand, silt and clay proportions; structure, mineralogy and horizons also control behavior.

Soil texture class

Loam

Loam is a USDA fine-earth texture class defined by sand, silt and clay proportions; structure, mineralogy and horizons also control behavior.

Soil texture class

Silt Loam

Silt Loam is a USDA fine-earth texture class defined by sand, silt and clay proportions; structure, mineralogy and horizons also control behavior.

Soil texture class

Clay Loam

Clay Loam is a USDA fine-earth texture class defined by sand, silt and clay proportions; structure, mineralogy and horizons also control behavior.

Soil texture class

Clay

Clay is a USDA fine-earth texture class defined by sand, silt and clay proportions; structure, mineralogy and horizons also control behavior.

Soil condition

Saline & Sodic Soils

Salinity is excess soluble salts; sodicity is excess exchangeable sodium. They may coexist but have distinct effects and treatments.

Soil condition

Organic & Peat Soils

Soils high in organic matter that hold very large amounts of water but can subside and become water-repellent when dried.

Soil condition

Compacted Soils

Soils pressed by traffic or equipment, losing pore space so water, air and roots cannot move freely.

Constructed root-zone blend

90/10 Sand Mix

A nominal blend, often 90% sand and 10% amendment by volume; verify the actual recipe.

Specified construction material

USGA Spec Sand

Sand intended for a USGA-style root-zone system; the name alone does not establish compliance.

Construction layer descriptor

Sand Base

A sand foundation whose function depends on grading, depth, compaction and drainage outlets.

Construction method descriptor

Push Up

Traditionally shaped native-soil green or surface, not a defined soil texture.

Mineral soil texture

Sandy Clay

Sandy Clay is a USDA fine-earth texture class defined by sand, silt and clay proportions; structure, mineralogy and horizons also control behavior.

Restrictive soil horizon

Claypan

Dense clay-enriched layer that can restrict water movement and root penetration.

Mineralogical behavior class

Expansive Clay

Clay-rich material with appreciable swelling when wet and shrinkage when dry.

Mineral soil texture

Silt

Silt is a USDA fine-earth texture class defined by sand, silt and clay proportions; structure, mineralogy and horizons also control behavior.

Wind-deposited parent material

Loess

Usually silt-rich windblown sediment; parent material rather than a complete soil order or texture diagnosis.

Soil horizon position

Subsoil

Material below topsoil with variable texture, chemistry and physical condition.

Weathered rock or aggregate material

Decomposed Granite (DG)

Granite-derived granular material used in paths and sometimes soil blends; grading varies.

Calcareous parent material

Chalk

Soft carbonate-rich geological material often producing alkaline soils; overlying soil properties vary.

Organic soil material

Peat

Partially decomposed organic material whose origin and decomposition strongly influence water behavior.

USDA Soil Taxonomy order

Alfisol

Soils with clay-enriched subsurface horizons and relatively high base status.

USDA Soil Taxonomy order

Andisol

Soils with specified andic properties, often formed from volcanic materials.

WRB Reference Soil Group

Andosol

WRB soils defined by andic or vitric diagnostic properties; not an exact synonym in every case for USDA Andisol.

USDA Soil Taxonomy order

Aridisol

Arid-region soils with limited leaching and specified diagnostic horizon development.

WRB Reference Soil Group

Calcisol

Soils with qualifying secondary carbonate accumulation, often in dry climates.

WRB Reference Soil Group

Cambisol

Moderately developed soils showing subsurface alteration but lacking stronger diagnostics of other groups.

WRB Reference Soil Group

Chernozem

Dark, base-rich soils associated with grassland environments and WRB diagnostic criteria.

USDA Soil Taxonomy order

Entisol

Soils with little qualifying horizon development, spanning diverse textures and environments.

USDA Soil Taxonomy order

Gelisol

Cold-region soils with permafrost at specified depth or qualifying gelic conditions.

USDA Soil Taxonomy order

Histosol

Soils dominated by qualifying organic soil materials, excluding relevant permafrost-defined cases.

USDA Soil Taxonomy order

Inceptisol

Weakly to moderately developed soils with diagnostic development insufficient for more developed orders.

USDA Soil Taxonomy order

Mollisol

Soils with a qualifying dark, base-rich mollic surface, commonly associated with grassland.

USDA Soil Taxonomy order

Ultisol

Strongly weathered soils with clay-enriched subsurface horizons and low base saturation.

USDA Soil Taxonomy order

Vertisol

Clay-rich soils with strong shrink-swell features such as slickensides and seasonal cracks.

Evergreen native oak

Coast Live Oak

Quercus agrifolia

Coast live oak has a broad, densely foliaged crown and leathery evergreen leaves. Its native range extends along coastal California into Baja California.

Evergreen oak

Southern Live Oak

Quercus virginiana

Southern live oak is a broad-crowned coastal oak of the southeastern United States. It retains its old foliage until new leaves emerge and needs substantial space for its spreading branches.

Palm

Canary Island Date Palm

Phoenix canariensis

Canary Island date palm is an evergreen ornamental with a stout trunk and a large crown of arching leaves. Sharp leaf-stalk spines are a handling hazard.

Evergreen conifer

Coast Redwood

Sequoia sempervirens

Sequoia sempervirens: red-brown bark is tough, fibrous, and deeply furrowed. Spreading branchlets bear flattened leaves in two ranks, with two white bands beneath.

Deciduous ornamental tree

Japanese Maple

Acer palmatum

Japanese maple is a small deciduous tree with deeply lobed leaves and many cultivar forms. Dappled shade and evenly moist, well-drained soil suit it; leaf color and growth habit depend on cultivar.

Evergreen flowering tree

Southern Magnolia

Magnolia grandiflora

Southern magnolia is a large evergreen native to moist woodlands and bottomlands of the southeastern coastal plains. Its glossy leaves, fragrant white summer flowers and red seeds are distinctive; the species needs ample growing space.

Deciduous shade tree

Sycamore / London Plane

Platanus spp.

Sycamore is retained as an unresolved Platanus profile, not assigned to American sycamore or London plane. Direct species accounts describe deciduous crowns, conspicuous bark and clustered fruits, but species-specific size and site tolerances should not be transferred without identification.

Evergreen fruit tree

Olive

Olea europaea

Olive is a slow-growing evergreen with a rounded crown, silvery foliage and, in fruiting forms, drupes used for food and oil. Fruiting and nonfruiting cultivars should not be treated as interchangeable.

Deciduous ancient tree

Ginkgo

Ginkgo biloba

Ginkgo is a deciduous tree distinguished by fan-shaped leaves and golden autumn color. Grafted male cultivars avoid the messy, strong-smelling seed coverings produced by female trees.

Mediterranean evergreen pine

Aleppo Pine

Pinus halepensis

Pinus halepensis: slender, twisted needles usually occur in pairs. Pendant, stalked seed cones remain on the branches long after maturity.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Arkansas Black Apple

Malus domestica ‘Arkansas Black’

Very dark red skin and exceptionally firm, tart flesh that mellows in storage. Late season; fruit is often better after storage than directly from the tree. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

evergreen fruit tree

Avocado

Persea americana

Avocado is an evergreen tropical fruit tree native to Central America. It bears large green leaves and edible fruits with a single large seed; cultivated trees are often kept shorter than wild trees.

Deciduous coastal fruit shrub or small tree

Beach Plum

Prunus maritima

Beach plum is a coastal shrub bearing small, tart plums traditionally made into jams and jellies. Rutgers describes its tolerance of sandy soils and saline conditions and its use in dune stabilization.

Deciduous western shade tree

Bigleaf Maple

Acer macrophyllum

Bigleaf maple is a large western North American deciduous tree associated with moist woods and streams. It suits large landscapes, where spreading roots can be kept away from vulnerable paving.

Deciduous California native oak

Blue Oak

Quercus douglasii

Blue oak forms savanna and woodland communities in California. The USDA review also documents it in some low-elevation riparian communities; habitat occurrence alone does not establish a numerical irrigation target.

Deciduous riparian maple

Boxelder Maple

Acer negundo

Boxelder is a deciduous maple often found near waterways and floodplains. Its compound leaves are distinctive, and weak branches can break under high winds or heavy snow.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Braeburn Apple

Malus domestica ‘Braeburn’

Firm, aromatic, sweet-tart fruit with red striping over a yellow-green background. Late season; requires a sufficiently long growing season. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Evergreen tree

California Bay

Umbellularia californica

California bay is an aromatic evergreen tree or shrub, also called Oregon myrtle. It occurs in southwestern Oregon and California and is often associated with moist canyons and stream edges.

Summer-deciduous tree or large shrub

California Buckeye

Aesculus californica

California native with white spring flower spikes and early leaf drop as a normal adaptation to summer drought.

California native pine

California Foothill Pine

Pinus sabiniana

Pinus sabiniana: drooping, dull blue-green needles usually occur in bundles of three. Heavy, pendant cones have thick scales ending in upcurved claws.

Evergreen dryland conifer

California Juniper

Juniperus californica

Juniperus californica: usually a multistemmed shrub or tree with a rounded crown. Light-green, scale-like adult leaves accompany globose, bluish-brown seed cones.

Evergreen fan palm

California Palm

Washingtonia filifera (usually; confirm identity)

California fan palm has a columnar trunk and large fan-shaped leaves with conspicuous marginal threads. Retained dead leaves form a hanging thatch that Oregon State identifies as a fire hazard in cultivation; confirm that the plant is Washingtonia filifera.

Tropical evergreen pine

Caribbean Pine

Pinus caribaea

Pinus caribaea: rigid, slightly twisted needles usually occur in bundles of three, with persistent sheaths. Ovoid-conical seed cones usually occur in pairs or whorls and open soon after maturity.

Deciduous European-type fruit tree

Common Plum

Prunus domestica (usually; confirm identity)

Common plum is provisionally treated as European plum, Prunus domestica. European types include fresh-eating plums and drying prunes; cultivar and pollinizer identity should be checked before predicting fruit set.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Cortland Apple

Malus domestica ‘Cortland’

Large red fruit with white flesh that browns relatively slowly after cutting. Midseason to mid-late season, depending on region. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Western evergreen pine

Coulter Pine

Pinus coulteri

Pinus coulteri: dusty gray-green needles occur in bundles of three. Massive, heavy, drooping cones have scales ending in long, upcurved claws.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Cox Orange Pippin Apple

Malus domestica ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’

Aromatic orange-red dessert apple, often with russeting and a complex sweet-tart flavor. Midseason to mid-late season in suitable temperate climates. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Evergreen conifer, identity unresolved

Cypress

Cupressaceae; genus and species unresolved

Cypress remains unidentified within Cupressaceae. The cited Cupressus account describes evergreen plants with scale-like adult foliage and woody cones, but these are genus-level background, not a confirmed diagnosis of this profile.

Mediterranean evergreen conifer

Italian Cypress

Cupressus sempervirens

Cupressus sempervirens: dark-green, scale-like leaves occur in opposite, alternating pairs. Brown to gray seed cones are globose to elliptical, with woody scales, and can persist for years.

Deciduous processing plum

Damson Plum

Prunus domestica subsp. insititia (often treated as P. insititia)

Damson belongs to the Prunus insititia group, also treated as Prunus domestica subsp. insititia. The RHS describes a small, sometimes spiny deciduous tree with white spring flowers; fruit characteristics depend on the selected variety.

Deciduous desert flowering tree

Desert Willow

Chilopsis linearis

Desert willow is a small deciduous tree or shrub of the southwestern United States and Mexico. It grows naturally along desert streams and sandy washes and bears showy tubular flowers; it is not a Salix willow.

Large evergreen conifer

Douglas Fir

Pseudotsuga menziesii

Pseudotsuga menziesii: needles are inserted around the twig but may appear two-ranked on shaded branches. Hanging seed cones have conspicuous three-pointed bracts between the scales.

Five-needle evergreen pine

Eastern White Pine

Pinus strobus

Pinus strobus: pliant, deep-green to blue-green needles occur in bundles of five. Pendant seed cones are elongated and cylindrical, with resinous scale tips.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Empire Apple

Malus domestica ‘Empire’

Crisp red dessert fruit combining McIntosh aroma with firmer texture. Midseason; assess background color and flavor before picking. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Broadleaf tree, species unresolved

Ficus

Ficus spp.; species unresolved

Ficus is a diverse genus in the mulberry family, not a single landscape-tree species. Its flowers develop inside specialized urn-shaped structures; growth habit and growing requirements vary greatly and require species identification.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Fuji Apple

Malus domestica ‘Fuji’

Very sweet, crisp, dense fruit with good keeping quality when harvested and stored correctly. Late season; needs adequate autumn warmth to mature. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Gala Apple

Malus domestica ‘Gala’

Sweet, aromatic, relatively small fruit with yellow ground color and orange-red striping. Early to midseason relative to most storage apples. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Large evergreen conifer

Giant Sequoia

Sequoiadendron giganteum

Sequoiadendron giganteum: reddish-brown bark is thick, fibrous, ridged, and furrowed. Adult leaves are mostly needle-like and triangular in cross section, spreading to closely pressed against the shoots.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Ginger Gold Apple

Malus domestica ‘Ginger Gold’

Early yellow dessert apple with a mild sweet-tart flavor and crisp texture when picked promptly. Early season, before Golden Delicious. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Golden Delicious Apple

Malus domestica ‘Golden Delicious’

Yellow-skinned, sweet, versatile fruit; humid conditions can increase skin russeting. Mid-late to late season, varying with climate. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Large evergreen true fir

Grand Fir

Abies grandis

Abies grandis: flat, flexible needles are usually arranged in two ranks, often alternating between long and short. Needles are glossy green above, with stomatal rows beneath and usually distinctly notched tips.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Granny Smith Apple

Malus domestica ‘Granny Smith’

Green-skinned, firm, sharply tart fruit useful for fresh and cooked preparations. Very late season; reliable maturity requires a long growing season. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Gravenstein Apple

Malus domestica ‘Gravenstein’

Aromatic striped fruit prized for sauce and juice, with a relatively short fresh-storage life. Early season; multiple picks may be needed. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Evergreen subtropical fruit and shade tree

Harpephyllum (Kaffir Plum)

Harpephyllum caffrum

Harpephyllum caffrum is an evergreen southern African tree with a dense crown and glossy compound leaves. Separate male and female trees bear greenish-white flowers; the red, plum-like fruits are eaten by people and wildlife.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Honeycrisp Apple

Malus domestica ‘Honeycrisp’

Exceptionally crisp, juicy fruit with a distinctive breaking texture; careful crop-load and calcium management are important. Midseason in many northern districts. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Idared Apple

Malus domestica ‘Idared’

Bright red, firm, tart fruit traditionally valued for keeping and cooking. Late season. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Western evergreen conifer

Incense Cedar

Calocedrus decurrens

Calocedrus decurrens: aromatic, scale-like leaves form flattened, vertically held sprays. Light to reddish-brown bark is fibrous and deeply furrowed into shreddy ridges.

Evergreen California native oak

Interior Live Oak

Quercus wislizeni

Interior live oak occurs in California chaparral and oak woodlands, including communities mixed with conifers. Its scrub and woodland forms occupy varied sites, so community occurrence should not be converted into a fixed irrigation prescription.

Boreal two-needle pine

Jack Pine

Pinus banksiana

Pinus banksiana: twisted, yellow-green needles occur in pairs. Upcurved, asymmetric cones may open soon after maturity or remain closed until released by age or fire.

Western montane pine

Jeffrey Pine

Pinus jeffreyi

Pinus jeffreyi: gray- to yellow-green needles occur in bundles of three. Thick, deeply furrowed bark forms large scaly plates and has a lemon-and-vanilla odor.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Jonagold Apple

Malus domestica ‘Jonagold’

Large, aromatic sweet-tart fruit blending Jonathan flavor with Golden Delicious sweetness. Mid-late to late season. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Jonathan Apple

Malus domestica ‘Jonathan’

Medium-sized red fruit with a lively tart flavor and useful culinary character. Midseason to mid-late season. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Arborescent desert monocot

Joshua Tree

Yucca brevifolia sensu lato; eastern plants may be Y. jaegeriana

Joshua tree is a desert yucca strongly associated with the Mojave Desert. Taxonomic work distinguishes Yucca brevifolia and Y. jaegeriana using geographic, morphological and pollinator differences; confirm identity before applying species-specific claims.

Five-needle nut pine

Korean Pine

Pinus koraiensis

Pinus koraiensis: needles occur in bundles of five, dark green on the outer face and whitish green on the inner faces. Seeds are large, thick, and wingless.

Ornamental three-needle pine

Lacebark Pine

Pinus bungeana

Pinus bungeana: smooth bark flakes away in small patches and becomes chalky white on old trunks. Rigid, dark-green needles occur in threes and are sparsely arranged along the branchlets.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Liberty Apple

Malus domestica ‘Liberty’

Red, sweet-tart fruit bred for disease resistance and suited to lower-input orchard planning. Midseason to mid-late season. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Southeastern evergreen pine

Loblolly Pine

Pinus taeda

Pinus taeda: usually has a single straight trunk and a domed to irregular crown of spreading, ascending branches. Pliant, deep yellow-green needles usually occur in bundles of three.

Western two-needle pine

Lodgepole Pine

Pinus contorta

Pinus contorta: ranges from contorted shrubs to straight trees, with crown form varying among geographic races. Twisted, yellow-green to dark-green needles usually occur in pairs.

Fire-adapted southeastern pine

Longleaf Pine

Pinus palustris

Pinus palustris: long, lustrous yellow-green needles usually occur in bundles of three, forming large tufts near branch ends. Foliage buds are silvery white; mature bark has coarse, orange-brown, rectangular plates.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Macoun Apple

Malus domestica ‘Macoun’

Aromatic red dessert fruit with crisp white flesh, best enjoyed near harvest. Midseason to mid-late season. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Mutsu Apple

Malus domestica ‘Mutsu’

Large green-yellow fruit with firm flesh and a sweet, mildly tart flavor. Late season. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Deciduous apple cultivar

McIntosh Red Apple

Malus domestica ‘McIntosh (red strain unspecified)’

Red-skinned McIntosh-type fruit with aromatic, tender white flesh that softens after picking. Early-mid to midseason. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Coastal evergreen conifer

Monterey Cypress

Hesperocyparis macrocarpa (syn. Cupressus macrocarpa)

Monterey cypress is a conifer also published under Cupressus macrocarpa and Callitropsis macrocarpa. Oregon State explains the use of Hesperocyparis macrocarpa and the continuing disagreement over generic classification; this source does not establish a lifespan or appraisal value.

Coastal three-needle pine

Monterey Pine

Pinus radiata

Pinus radiata: deep yellow-green needles occur in threes in the typical variety and in pairs in variety binata. Seed cones are persistent and often remain closed; they are commonly asymmetric in the typical variety.

Mountain evergreen pine

Mountain Pine

Pinus mugo (usually; confirm catalog identity)

Pinus mugo: usually a low shrub with curved trunks and branches that lie along the ground before rising at their ends. Bright- to dark-green needles usually occur in pairs and are straight to slightly twisted.

Montane evergreen true fir

Noble Fir

Abies procera

Abies procera: has a spire-like crown and stiff branches extending at right angles from the trunk. Bluish-green needles lie against the twig near their bases before bending outward, with pale stomatal bands beneath.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Northern Spy Apple

Malus domestica ‘Northern Spy’

Large, firm, tart-sweet fruit especially valued for pies and winter use. Late season. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Pink Lady Apple

Malus domestica ‘Cripps Pink or other approved Pink Lady selection’

Crisp, firm, sweet-tart fruit with a pink-red blush; the catalog uses a commercial brand name. Very late season; needs a long warm growing season. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

European five-needle stone pine

Pinus cembra

Pinus cembra

Pinus cembra: stiff, dark-green needles occur in bundles of five. The crown is narrowly pyramidal when young, becoming open and flattened with age; timberline plants may form krummholz.

European black pine

Pinus nigra

Pinus nigra

Pinus nigra: needles occur in pairs with persistent basal sheaths. Mature bark is thick and deeply fissured, breaking into scaly ridges or irregular plates.

Maritime pine

Pinus pinaster

Pinus pinaster

Pinus pinaster: usually has an open crown of candelabra-like, upswept branches and a somewhat sinuous trunk. Occurs in relatively dry woodlands on diverse soils, including coastal dunes.

Siberian five-needle pine

Pinus sibirica

Pinus sibirica

Pinus sibirica: needles occur in bundles of five, forming dense tufts near branch ends, with white stomatal lines on the two inner faces. Numerous spreading branches form a broadly conical crown.

Scots pine

Pinus sylvestris

Pinus sylvestris

Pinus sylvestris: blue-green to gray-green needles occur in pairs and are commonly slightly twisted. Seed cones are conical and symmetrical or nearly so, ripening to matte gray-buff or gray-green.

Fire-adapted eastern pine

Pitch Pine

Pinus rigida

Pinus rigida: straight or crooked trunks commonly bear adventitious sprouts between bark plates. Twisted, yellow-green needles usually occur in bundles of three.

Deciduous fruit tree, identity unresolved

Plum

Prunus spp. and hybrids; cultivar unresolved

Plum covers multiple Prunus species and hybrids. UC distinguishes Japanese and European groups; the cultivar and pollinizer must be identified before predicting performance.

Deciduous hybrid fruit tree

Pluot

Prunus interspecific hybrids, predominantly plum × apricot ancestry

Pluots are plum–apricot interspecific hybrids rather than a single botanical species or cultivar. UC lists several named selections; cultivar identity is necessary before assigning fruit traits or pollination requirements.

Large western evergreen pine

Ponderosa Pine

Pinus ponderosa species complex

Pinus ponderosa: usually has a straight, robust trunk with thick, persistent branches. Flexible, sharp-tipped needles occur in bundles of three and range from yellow-green to blue-green.

Deciduous European-type fruit tree

Prune Plum

Prunus domestica, drying-type cultivars

Prune plum denotes drying types of European plum, not a separate species. UC distinguishes these from fresh-eating European types and from Japanese plums; identify the cultivar before assigning harvest or pollination traits.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Red Delicious Apple

Malus domestica ‘Red Delicious’

Elongated red fruit often with pronounced calyx lobes and a mild sweet flavor. Mid-late to late season; strain and site affect timing. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Northern two-needle pine

Red Pine

Pinus resinosa

Pinus resinosa: deep yellow-green needles occur in pairs and break cleanly when bent. Light red-brown bark is furrowed and divided into irregularly rectangular, scaly plates.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Red Rome Apple

Malus domestica ‘Rome Beauty (red strain unspecified)’

Red-skinned Rome-type cooking apple with firm flesh that holds form when baked. Late season. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Deciduous fruit cultivar

Santa Rosa Plum

Prunus salicina ‘Santa Rosa’ (Japanese-type hybrid cultivar)

Santa Rosa is a named plum cultivar listed by UC among Japanese and hybrid types. The cited material does not establish a cultivar-specific lifespan, mature size or guaranteed pollination performance.

Southeastern evergreen pine

Shortleaf Pine

Pinus echinata

Pinus echinata: gray- to yellow-green needles occur in bundles of two or three. Red-brown bark forms scaly plates containing small resin pockets.

Dryland nut pine

Single-leaf Pinyon

Pinus monophylla

Pinus monophylla: stout, curved, gray-green needles are usually solitary and rounded in cross section. Often has multiple stems and a dense, rounded crown of spreading and ascending branches.

Large coastal evergreen conifer

Sitka Spruce

Picea sitchensis

Picea sitchensis: rigid, sharply pointed needles have conspicuous pale stomatal bands on their lower surfaces. Pendant seed cones have thin, flexible scales and ripen pale buff to light orange-brown.

Southeastern evergreen pine

Slash Pine

Pinus elliottii

Pinus elliottii: pliant, yellow- to blue-green needles occur in bundles of two or three. Light chocolate-brown seed cones have glossy, raised scale tips with short, stout prickles.

Mediterranean umbrella pine

Stone Pine

Pinus pinea

Pinus pinea: the crown becomes very broad and low-rounded with age, with upswept branch tips. Adult needles are mid-green and occur in pairs, contrasting with shorter, bluish juvenile foliage.

Large western five-needle pine

Sugar Pine

Pinus lambertiana

Pinus lambertiana: pliant, blue-green needles occur in bundles of five. Long, cylindrical seed cones hang near the ends of long, nearly horizontal branches.

Rare coastal California pine

Torrey Pine

Pinus torreyana

Pinus torreyana: dark-green needles usually occur in bundles of five, clustered near branch tips. Heavy, ovoid cones have thick, angularly domed scale tips and may persist after shedding seed.

Evergreen flowering tree

Tristania (Water Gum)

Tristaniopsis laurina

Water gum, Tristaniopsis laurina, is an eastern Australian tree associated with creek banks and rainforest openings. It has glossy leaves, clustered yellowish flowers and woody seed capsules; cultivation requires adequate water rather than an assumed drought threshold.

Large deciduous California native oak

Valley Oak

Quercus lobata

Valley oak is a large California deciduous oak of valleys, foothills and riparian forests. Its broad crown and rounded-lobed leaves are distinctive; NC Extension describes growth in deep fertile soils with access to groundwater.

Eastern two-needle pine

Virginia Pine

Pinus virginiana

Pinus virginiana: twisted, yellow-green needles occur in pairs. Persistent seed cones have rigid scales tipped with slender, stiff prickles.

Large evergreen forest conifer

Western Hemlock

Tsuga heterophylla

Tsuga heterophylla: flattened needles mostly appear two-ranked, with shiny green upper surfaces and two broad pale bands beneath. The crown is narrowly conical, becoming irregular in old trees.

Large evergreen conifer

Western Red Cedar

Thuja plicata

Thuja plicata: scale-like shade leaves occur in opposite pairs on flattened, pendant sprays. Fibrous, red-brown to gray-brown bark has shallow longitudinal fissures and peels easily.

Deciduous large shrub or small tree

Western Redbud

Cercis occidentalis

Western redbud is a California native grown as a shrub or small tree. Bright spring bloom precedes its round leaves, followed by reddish summer seed pods; UC Davis also notes its use by beneficial insects.

Deciduous riparian tree

Western Sycamore

Platanus racemosa

Western sycamore is native to California and Baja California. It often forms multiple trunks, with pale smooth upper bark, lobed leaves and stalked groups of spherical fruit clusters.

Western five-needle pine

Western White Pine

Pinus monticola

Pinus monticola: pliant, blue-green needles occur in bundles of five. Pendant, elongated seed cones are creamy brown to yellowish and resinous.

Deciduous apple cultivar

Winesap Apple

Malus domestica ‘Winesap’

Firm, aromatic, deeply colored fruit with a pronounced tart, wine-like character. Late season. Tree size, anchorage and drought response depend strongly on the grafted rootstock; full sun, drainage, compatible pollination and annual crop management are essential.

Evergreen hedge shrub

Boxwood

Buxus spp.

Evergreen shrubs for hedges and topiary; growth rate and mature form vary by species and cultivar.

Evergreen flowering shrub

Camellia

Camellia japonica / sasanqua

Evergreen flowering shrubs; sasanqua types commonly flower in fall, while japonica cultivars commonly flower in winter to spring.

Flowering shrub

Azalea & Rhododendron

Rhododendron spp.

Spectacular spring color on shallow, fine roots that are very sensitive to both drought and saturation.

Flowering shrub

Hydrangea

Hydrangea spp.

Flowering shrubs with species-dependent sun tolerance and irrigation needs; bigleaf hydrangea benefits from moist, well-drained soil and protection from hot exposure.

Flowering shrub

Roses

Rosa spp.

Signature color for entries and gardens; consistent deep watering and dry foliage limit disease.

Evergreen hedge/screen

Podocarpus (Yew Pine)

Podocarpus macrophyllus

A tidy, tall privacy screen for warm climates, used widely around resorts and commercial properties.

Flowering vine/shrub

Bougainvillea

Bougainvillea spp.

Tropical flowering vines and shrubs with colorful bracts; full sun and good drainage support flowering.

Evergreen shrub

Pittosporum

Pittosporum spp.

Versatile evergreen screens and specimen shrubs common in coastal and Mediterranean landscapes.

Deciduous flowering shrub or small tree

Crape Myrtle

Lagerstroemia indica and hybrids, often with L. fauriei

Summer-flowering ornamental with dwarf to tree-size cultivars; hybrid identity influences mildew resistance and mature size.

Deciduous fruiting shrub

Elderberry

Sambucus spp.

Elderberry is a fast-growing shrub with flower clusters and dark berries; fruit is commonly processed, and multiple cultivars can improve pollination and yield.

Deciduous flowering shrub

Forsythia

Forsythia spp. and hybrids, commonly F. × intermedia

Early yellow flowers occur on previous-season wood; this genus-level label gives no specific cultivar or hardiness guarantee.

Evergreen acid-soil shrub

Japanese Andromeda (Pieris)

Pieris japonica

Slow-growing Japanese pieris bears pendant spring flower chains and often copper-red young foliage; not an Andromeda species despite the common name.

Tender shrub or perennial; species ambiguous

Lantana

Lantana spp. and hybrids, commonly L. camara complex or L. montevidensis

Heat-loving flower clusters attract butterflies; upright common lantana differs from trailing lantana and from native regional species.

Semi-evergreen hybrid shrub

Abelia × grandiflora (Glossy Abelia)

Abelia × grandiflora (syn. Linnaea × grandiflora)

Hybrid of A. chinensis and A. uniflora with arching branches and a long season of white to pink tubular flowers.

Deciduous shrub; genus-level label

Meadowsweet (Spiraea)

Spiraea spp. and cultivars

This catalog specifies woody Spiraea, not herbaceous Filipendula ulmaria also called meadowsweet. Species range from moist-site natives to ornamental hybrids.

Evergreen flowering shrub

Mountain-laurel

Kalmia latifolia

Eastern North American native heath-family shrub with patterned cup-shaped flowers; distinct from bay laurel and western mountain-laurel names.

Evergreen or deciduous flowering shrub; genus-level label

Rhododendron

Rhododendron spp., hybrids and cultivars (including azaleas botanically)

A diverse genus, not a single moisture or hardiness class. Large-leaved rhododendrons, evergreen azaleas and deciduous azaleas require locally matched selections.

Arid-region fruit palm

Date Palm

Phoenix dactylifera

Date palm bears arching, pinnate leaves and edible dates. These are species-level characteristics; the Medjool cultivar identity remains unconfirmed.

Evergreen shrub

California Buckwheat

Eriogonum fasciculatum

Dryland California native with cream flower clusters that age rust-brown and provide long-season insect habitat.

Rhizomatous perennial/subshrub

California Fuchsia

Epilobium canum (syn. Zauschneria californica)

California native producing tubular red-orange flowers in late summer and fall; cultivar forms range from groundcovers to upright clumps.

Shrub or small tree; genus-level label

California Lilac (Ceanothus)

Ceanothus spp. and hybrids

California lilacs are not true lilacs (Syringa). Species and cultivars vary from groundcovers to trees, and in cold hardiness and summer-water tolerance.

Annual or short-lived perennial

California Poppy

Eschscholzia californica

California state flower with orange, sun-opening flowers; often grown as a winter-rain annual that reseeds.

Drought-adapted shrub

California Sagebrush

Artemisia californica

Aromatic gray-green coastal sage scrub native, often shedding some foliage in the dry season; not culinary sage.

Deciduous woody vine

California Wild Grape

Vitis californica

Vigorous native riparian grape that climbs by tendrils and provides wildlife fruit; not a named table-grape cultivar.

Deciduous suckering shrub

California Wild Rose

Rosa californica

Native thicket-forming rose with pink flowers and persistent hips, useful where spreading by suckers is acceptable.

Evergreen flowering shrub

Carpenteria californica

Carpenteria californica

Bush anemone is a California endemic shrub bearing fragrant white flowers with yellow stamens; not an herbaceous Anemone.

Evergreen shrub

Coyote Brush

Baccharis pilularis

Durable California native with upright and prostrate forms; male and female flowers occur on separate plants.

Evergreen shrub or small tree

Hollyleaf Cherry

Prunus ilicifolia

California native cherry with leathery leaves and wildlife fruit; hollyleaf form differs from the smoother-leaved Catalina cherry subspecies.

Evergreen coastal shrub

Lemonade Berry

Rhus integrifolia

Southern California and Baja coastal native with leathery leaves and sticky reddish fruit; distinct from sugar bush, Rhus ovata.

Dormant-season herbaceous perennial

Narrowleaf Milkweed

Asclepias fascicularis

Western native milkweed with narrow whorled leaves; a monarch larval host that normally dies back seasonally.

Deciduous shrub or small tree

Sambucus cerulea (Blue Elderberry)

Sambucus nigra subsp. caerulea (syn. Sambucus cerulea; also spelled S. caerulea)

Western blue elderberry with powdery-blue fruit; distinct from generic black or red elderberry labels.

Herbaceous perennial; genus-level label

Solidago (Goldenrod)

Solidago spp.

Goldenrods are diverse yellow-flowered perennials; western natives such as S. velutina subsp. californica differ from eastern meadow species and hybrids.

Evergreen shrub or small tree

Toyon

Heteromeles arbutifolia

California native also called Christmas berry, with white flower clusters followed by red winter fruit for birds.

Rhizomatous herbaceous perennial

Yarrow

Achillea millefolium species complex and cultivars

Flat-topped flowers and finely divided foliage; local native material and ornamental colored cultivars differ in origin and growth.

Warm-season annual fruit crop

Cantaloupe

Cucumis melo, Reticulatus Group and Cantalupensis Group

Warm-season melon; U.S. cantaloupes are usually netted muskmelons, while true European cantaloupes belong to a different horticultural group.

Warm-season annual fruit crop

Honeydew Melon

Cucumis melo, Inodorus Group

Smooth-rinded warm-season melon, distinct from netted cantaloupe despite sharing the same species.

Warm-season annual fruit crop

Watermelon

Citrullus lanatus

Heat-loving vine with large fruit; diploid seeded and triploid seedless cultivars have different pollination requirements.

Crop category, not a single species

Root Vegetables

Multiple species: e.g. Daucus carota subsp. sativus, Beta vulgaris, Raphanus sativus, Brassica rapa subsp. rapa

Includes carrot, beet, radish and turnip; crops differ in season, salinity tolerance, rooting depth and harvest timing. Potato is a stem tuber and sweetpotato a storage root, so neither should be silently treated as carrot.

Herbaceous perennial fruit crop

Strawberry

Fragaria × ananassa

Strawberries are shallow-rooted plants that produce runners and suit small garden plantings. Reliable moisture, good drainage, and healthy planting material are important for successful production.

Deciduous perennial berry shrub

Blueberry (Highbush)

Vaccinium corymbosum

Highbush blueberries require acidic soil and careful drainage management. They are less drought and heat resistant than rabbiteye blueberries.

Low-growing evergreen perennial fruit vine

Cranberry

Vaccinium macrocarpon

Cranberries grow on low, trailing perennial vines in acidic beds. They tolerate periodic flooding but are not grown continuously underwater.

Perennial caneberry

Raspberry

Rubus spp.

Raspberries have perennial roots and crowns, while individual canes live for two years. Summer-bearing and primocane-fruiting types require different pruning approaches.

Perennial caneberry

Blackberry

Rubus spp.

Blackberries have perennial crowns and roots and produce fruit on canes managed according to their fruiting habit. Cultivars differ in thorniness, growth habit, and support requirements.

Deciduous perennial fruit shrub

Gooseberry

Ribes spp.

Gooseberries are hardy woody shrubs grown for fresh fruit and preserves. Many cultivated gooseberries combine European and American ancestry.

Deciduous perennial berry shrub

Red Currant

Ribes rubrum

Red currants are hardy, self-fruitful shrubs grown mainly for tart berries used in preserves. They tolerate partial shade but benefit from good air circulation and adequate moisture.

Deciduous perennial fruit vine

Table Grape (Thompson Seedless)

Vitis vinifera

Thompson Seedless is a grape cultivar with published growth-stage models developed in California. Vineyard management must also account for berry rots, insect feeding, and moisture stress.

Herbaceous perennial climbing bine

Hops

Humulus lupulus

Hops regrow from perennial underground parts after their aboveground stems die back. Female cones are harvested for brewing, and productive plantings need strong support and reliable water access.

Short-lived perennial tropical fruit vine

Passion Fruit

Passiflora edulis

Passion fruit is a shallow-rooted climbing vine producing aromatic pulp around edible seeds. Purple and yellow forms belong to the same species and differ in adaptation and disease response.

Deciduous fruit shrub or small tree

Pomegranate

Punica granatum

Pomegranates produce edible, juicy arils inside leathery-skinned fruit. Warm, dry growing conditions favor fruit quality, while humid conditions increase disease pressure.

Deciduous fruit tree

Persimmon

Diospyros kaki

This profile covers Asian or Japanese persimmon, which includes astringent and nonastringent fruit types. Trees offer edible fruit and autumn landscape interest.

Warm-season grain and forage cereal

Corn (Field)

Zea mays

Field corn produces grain and silage. Drought near pollination can reduce grain production and increase feeding risks.

Warm-season vegetable cereal

Sweet Corn

Zea mays

Sweet corn is harvested for tender immature kernels. Warm soil and reliable moisture support establishment and ear development.

Cool-season grain and forage cereal

Wheat

Triticum aestivum

Wheat is grown chiefly for grain but also supplies forage. Spring and winter types suit different planting seasons.

Cool-season grain and forage cereal

Barley

Hordeum vulgare

Barley supplies feed, malting grain, and forage. It matures relatively early and tolerates drought and saline conditions.

Cool-season grain and forage cereal

Oats

Avena sativa

Oats provide food grain, livestock feed, and forage. They favor well-drained soil and are less winter hardy than other small grains.

Cool-season cereal and cover crop

Rye (Cereal)

Secale cereale

Cereal rye is winter hardy and drought tolerant. It provides early spring grazing and effective winter ground cover.

Wheat–rye hybrid grain and forage cereal

Triticale

× Triticosecale

Triticale combines wheat and rye ancestry. It is grown for feed grain, grazing, hay, and silage.

Warm-season grain cereal

Sorghum (Grain)

Sorghum bicolor

Grain sorghum is adapted to hot, dry environments. Its grain supplies human food and livestock feed.

Warm-season grain and forage cereal

Pearl Millet

Pennisetum glaucum

Pearl millet is a drought-resistant cereal suited to dryland production. It tolerates sandy and acidic soils well.

Warm-season food cereal

Rice

Oryza sativa

Rice is a staple grain grown in irrigated, rainfed, and upland systems. Water management influences growth and pest pressure.

Perennial tropical sugar grass

Sugarcane

Saccharum officinarum

Sugarcane stores sugar in its stems. Healthy planting material and disease-resistant varieties are central to crop management.

Biennial sugar-root crop harvested in its first year

Sugarbeet

Beta vulgaris

Sugarbeet stores sucrose in its root during the first growing season. Establishment, weed control, and root health affect production.

Evergreen subtropical citrus tree

Orange (Navel)

Citrus sinensis

Navel oranges are sweet oranges grown for edible fruit. They need warm conditions, with UC guidance identifying inland valleys as particularly suitable for good fruit quality.

Evergreen acid-citrus tree

Lemon

Citrus limon

Lemon produces acidic fruit used in drinks and cooking. Successful cultivation requires good drainage and attention to serious citrus diseases.

Evergreen subtropical acid-citrus tree

Lime (Persian)

Citrus latifolia

Persian lime is also called Tahiti or Bearss lime. It is a warm-climate citrus grown for acidic fruit.

Evergreen subtropical citrus tree

Mandarin (Tangerine)

Citrus reticulata

Mandarins and tangerines are citrus fruits valued for fresh eating. Pollination requirements, maturity season, and pest susceptibility vary among cultivars and hybrids.

Evergreen subtropical citrus tree

Grapefruit

Citrus paradisi

Grapefruit is grown for fresh fruit and juice. Warm growing conditions are important for high fruit quality.

Deciduous stone-fruit tree

Peach

Prunus persica

Peach is a deciduous fruit tree requiring full sun, good drainage, and regular management. Winter chilling requirements and vulnerability to spring frost make cultivar and site selection important.

Smooth-skinned deciduous stone-fruit tree

Nectarine

Prunus persica

Nectarines are fuzzless peaches, and their basic cultivation is the same. They need sun, well-drained soil, suitable winter chilling, and ongoing pest management.

Deciduous stone-fruit tree

Apricot

Prunus armeniaca

Apricot produces edible stone fruit and showy early flowers. Its early bloom makes spring frost a major risk to cropping.

Deciduous stone-fruit tree

Sweet Cherry

Prunus avium

Sweet cherry is grown for edible summer fruit and showy spring flowers. It prefers moisture-retentive soil with good drainage and is vulnerable to wet soils and late frost.

Deciduous sour stone-fruit tree

Tart Cherry

Prunus cerasus

Tart cherry produces sour red fruit used fresh, dried, and in pies. It is more cold hardy than sweet cherry and is self-pollinating.

Deciduous European pome-fruit tree

Pear (Bartlett)

Pyrus communis

Bartlett is a European pear cultivar. European pear guidance emphasizes sun, drainage, suitable pollination partners, and management of diseases such as fire blight.

Deciduous fruit tree or large shrub

Fig

Ficus carica

Common fig is a spreading tree or shrub grown for fresh and processed fruit. It prefers moist, well-drained soil and may require winter protection in colder locations.

Short-lived perennial forage legume

Red Clover

Trifolium pratense

Red clover supplies forage and improves soil in crop rotations. It grows rapidly in cool spring and fall weather, but crown and root diseases can shorten stand life.

Perennial pasture legume

White Clover

Trifolium repens

White clover is a low-growing forage legume suited to grazing and grass mixtures. Its persistence depends on suitable moisture and management that prevents taller grasses from shading it.

Cool-season perennial bunchgrass

Timothy

Phleum pratense

Timothy is a shallow-rooted forage grass best adapted to cool, humid conditions. It is especially important for hay and is less suited to drought, prolonged heat, or close grazing.

Cool-season perennial forage bunchgrass

Orchardgrass

Dactylis glomerata

Orchardgrass is a productive, leafy forage grass used for pasture and conserved feed. It performs best on well-drained soils and works well in mixtures with legumes.

Warm-season perennial native grass

Switchgrass

Panicum virgatum

Switchgrass is a deep-rooted grass used for conservation, forage, wildlife habitat, and biomass. Established plants tolerate drought, but slow seedling growth makes weed control important during establishment.

Warm-season annual forage hybrid

Sorghum-Sudangrass

Sorghum bicolor × Sorghum bicolor var. sudanese

Sorghum-sudangrass is a rapidly growing hybrid used for summer forage and cover cropping. Drought and freezing can increase forage toxicity risks, so appearance alone should not be used to judge feed safety.

Tropical perennial beverage shrub or small tree

Coffee

Coffea arabica; Coffea canephora

Coffee is grown for seeds that are processed and roasted to make a beverage. The Florida guide discusses arabica and robusta coffee and emphasizes pruning, suitable drainage, and moisture management.

Evergreen perennial beverage shrub

Tea (Camellia sinensis)

Camellia sinensis

Tea is made from the leaves and buds of Camellia sinensis, with processing determining the finished tea style. Plants prefer acidic, moist, well-drained soil and can also serve as ornamental shrubs.

Tropical perennial tree crop

Cacao

Theobroma cacao

Cacao produces pods containing seeds used for chocolate and cocoa butter. It needs dependable moisture, protection from wind and cold, and suitable shade.

Tropical perennial climbing orchid

Vanilla

Vanilla planifolia

Vanilla is grown for capsules that are cured and processed into flavoring products. The vines need support, suitable shade, and a moisture-retentive but well-drained rooting environment.

Warm-season rhizomatous spice crop

Turmeric

Curcuma longa

Turmeric is grown for rhizomes used fresh or dried as a spice. Active plants need dependable moisture, but excessive watering encourages root and rhizome disease.

Warm-season rhizomatous spice crop

Ginger

Zingiber officinale

Ginger is grown for aromatic rhizomes used fresh and processed. It requires reliable moisture during active growth, while waterlogging creates a serious risk of root and rhizome disease.

Vegetable, spice, or specialty crop; specific classification is not documented in the cited pages.

Okra

Abelmoschus esculentus

Okra is a specialty crop with locally variable production practices. The cited references describe related crop culture or specialty vegetables, but detailed crop-specific recommendations are not consistently documented.

Vegetable, spice, or specialty crop; specific classification is not documented in the cited pages.

Daikon (Radish)

Raphanus sativus var. longipinnatus

Daikon (Radish) is a specialty crop with locally variable production practices. The cited references describe related crop culture or specialty vegetables, but detailed crop-specific recommendations are not consistently documented.

Vegetable, spice, or specialty crop; specific classification is not documented in the cited pages.

Bok Choy

Brassica rapa var. chinensis

Bok Choy is a specialty crop with locally variable production practices. The cited references describe related crop culture or specialty vegetables, but detailed crop-specific recommendations are not consistently documented.

Vegetable, spice, or specialty crop; specific classification is not documented in the cited pages.

Lotus Root

Not stated in the cited publications

Lotus Root is a specialty crop with locally variable production practices. The cited references describe related crop culture or specialty vegetables, but detailed crop-specific recommendations are not consistently documented.

Vegetable, spice, or specialty crop; specific classification is not documented in the cited pages.

Water Chestnut

Not stated in the cited publications

Water Chestnut is a specialty crop with locally variable production practices. The cited references describe related crop culture or specialty vegetables, but detailed crop-specific recommendations are not consistently documented.

Vegetable, spice, or specialty crop; specific classification is not documented in the cited pages.

Bamboo Shoot

Not stated in the cited publications

Bamboo Shoot is a specialty crop with locally variable production practices. The cited references describe related crop culture or specialty vegetables, but detailed crop-specific recommendations are not consistently documented.

Vegetable, spice, or specialty crop; specific classification is not documented in the cited pages.

Saffron

Not stated in the cited publications

Saffron is a specialty crop with locally variable production practices. The cited references describe related crop culture or specialty vegetables, but detailed crop-specific recommendations are not consistently documented.

Vegetable, spice, or specialty crop; specific classification is not documented in the cited pages.

Sesame

Not stated in the cited publications

Sesame is a specialty crop with locally variable production practices. The cited references describe related crop culture or specialty vegetables, but detailed crop-specific recommendations are not consistently documented.

Vegetable, spice, or specialty crop; specific classification is not documented in the cited pages.

Mustard (Oilseed)

Not stated in the cited publications

Mustard (Oilseed) is a specialty crop with locally variable production practices. The cited references describe related crop culture or specialty vegetables, but detailed crop-specific recommendations are not consistently documented.

Vegetable, spice, or specialty crop; specific classification is not documented in the cited pages.

Fenugreek

Not stated in the cited publications

Fenugreek is a specialty crop with locally variable production practices. The cited references describe related crop culture or specialty vegetables, but detailed crop-specific recommendations are not consistently documented.

Vegetable, spice, or specialty crop; specific classification is not documented in the cited pages.

Lemongrass

Not stated in the cited publications

Lemongrass is a specialty crop with locally variable production practices. The cited references describe related crop culture or specialty vegetables, but detailed crop-specific recommendations are not consistently documented.

Vegetable, spice, or specialty crop; specific classification is not documented in the cited pages.

Tamarind

Not stated in the cited publications

Tamarind is a specialty crop with locally variable production practices. The cited references describe related crop culture or specialty vegetables, but detailed crop-specific recommendations are not consistently documented.

Tropical root and tuber crop

Cassava

Manihot esculenta

Cassava is a tropical staple grown primarily for its carbohydrate-rich storage roots; healthy planting material and timely establishment, weed control, and disease management support productive fields.

Tropical climbing tuber crop

Yam (Dioscorea)

Dioscorea spp.

Yams are climbing perennial plants cultivated for underground or, in some species, aerial tubers. Species differ substantially, so planting and management practices should be matched to the local yam species and production system.

Tropical root and leaf vegetable

Taro

Colocasia esculenta

Taro is grown in both upland, non-flooded systems and lowland, waterlogged or flooded fields. Growers should select a cultivar and water regime suited to the local production system and use sound planting material.

Tropical herbaceous fruit crop

Plantain

Musa × paradisiaca

Plantain is a large, herbaceous Musa crop producing starchy fruits commonly cooked before eating. Maintaining a healthy, well-managed stand includes attention to water, weeds, and banana-family pests and diseases.

Annual cereal grain

Teff

Eragrostis tef

Teff is an Ethiopian-origin cereal cultivated for its very small grain. Production guidance emphasizes suitable field establishment and management of water, weeds, soil fertility, pests, and lodging.

Annual small-grain cereal

Fonio

Digitaria exilis

Fonio is a small-grained West African cereal grown in parts of the region from Senegal toward the Lake Chad basin. It is valued as food, and its cultivation requires attention to weed competition, water management, harvest timing, and post-harvest grain handling.

Annual broadleaf pseudocereal grown for edible seed

Quinoa

Chenopodium quinoa Willd.

Quinoa is an Andean-origin annual pseudocereal cultivated for its edible, nutrient-rich seed. It can suit diverse growing environments, but local variety adaptation and crop management matter.

Warm-season broadleaf grain pseudocereal

Amaranth (Grain)

Amaranthus hypochondriacus; Amaranthus cruentus

Grain amaranth is a warm-season broadleaf crop harvested for its small edible seeds, which are used whole or processed into foods. It can also be grown as a leafy vegetable or forage, depending on species and production goals.

Warm-season annual grain and pulse legume

Cowpea (Black-eyed Pea)

Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.

Cowpea is a warm-adapted, variable legume grown for dry seed, green peas, pods, leaves, forage and cover-crop uses. Black-eyed pea is one familiar seed market class within this species.

Perennial-capable tropical grain legume commonly grown as an annual

Pigeon Pea

Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.

Pigeon pea is a tropical legume cultivated for edible pulse seed and valued in mixed farming systems. It can also provide fodder, cover, windbreak and soil-improvement benefits.

Annual cereal grass (small millet)

Finger Millet (Ragi)

Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.

Finger millet, also called ragi, is a small-grained cereal grown in rainfed and irrigated systems across parts of South Asia and Africa. Its major disease concern includes blast, which can affect leaves and the neck of the ear.

Warm-season annual pulse legume

Mungbean (Green Gram)

Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek

Mungbean, also known as green gram, is a warm-season annual pulse crop widely grown in South and Southeast Asia. It is harvested as dry seed and is also commonly processed into sprouts and other foods.

Tropical palm and fiber/oil crop

Coconut

Cocos nucifera

Coconut (Cocos nucifera) is a regionally important crop grown for food, copra and coconut oil. Production practices and stress responses vary with climate, soil drainage, cultivar, and local pest pressure.

Tropical oil palm

Oil Palm

Elaeis guineensis

Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis) is a regionally important crop grown for palm oil, kernel oil. Production practices and stress responses vary with climate, soil drainage, cultivar, and local pest pressure.

Tropical latex-producing tree

Rubber Tree

Hevea brasiliensis

Rubber Tree (Hevea brasiliensis) is a regionally important crop grown for natural rubber latex, timber. Production practices and stress responses vary with climate, soil drainage, cultivar, and local pest pressure.

Bast-fiber annual crop

Jute

Corchorus olitorius

Jute (Corchorus olitorius) is a regionally important crop grown for burlap and rope fiber. Production practices and stress responses vary with climate, soil drainage, cultivar, and local pest pressure.

Hard-leaf fiber succulent

Sisal

Agave sisalana

Sisal (Agave sisalana) is a regionally important crop grown for rope and mats. Production practices and stress responses vary with climate, soil drainage, cultivar, and local pest pressure.

African oilseed tree

Shea

Vitellaria paradoxa

Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) is a regionally important crop grown for shea butter, food oil. Production practices and stress responses vary with climate, soil drainage, cultivar, and local pest pressure.

African multipurpose tree

Baobab

Adansonia digitata

Baobab (Adansonia digitata) is a regionally important crop grown for fruit pulp, seeds. Production practices and stress responses vary with climate, soil drainage, cultivar, and local pest pressure.

Multipurpose tree crop

Moringa

Moringa oleifera

Moringa (Moringa oleifera) is a regionally important crop grown for leaves and pods as food, seed oil. Production practices and stress responses vary with climate, soil drainage, cultivar, and local pest pressure.

Tropical spice tree

Clove

Syzygium aromaticum

Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) is a regionally important crop grown for dried flower buds as spice. Production practices and stress responses vary with climate, soil drainage, cultivar, and local pest pressure.

Tropical spice tree

Nutmeg

Myristica fragrans

Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) is a regionally important crop grown for seed used as nutmeg spice, mace. Production practices and stress responses vary with climate, soil drainage, cultivar, and local pest pressure.

Tropical climbing spice

Black Pepper

Piper nigrum

Black Pepper (Piper nigrum) is a regionally important crop grown for dried berries as spice. Production practices and stress responses vary with climate, soil drainage, cultivar, and local pest pressure.

Herb/medicinal crop

Mint

Mentha × piperita

Perennial culinary and aromatic herb; spreads vigorously and prefers moist, fertile soil.

Herb/medicinal crop

Basil

Ocimum basilicum

Warm-season annual herb grown for aromatic leaves; requires sun, fertile well-drained soil, and regular moisture.

Herb/medicinal crop

Lavender

Lavandula angustifolia

A fragrant perennial subshrub suited to full sun and sharply drained soil; saturated conditions are unfavorable.

Herb/medicinal crop

Rosemary

Salvia rosmarinus

Evergreen aromatic shrub with needle-like leaves, used as a culinary herb; favors sun and well-drained soil.

Herb/medicinal crop

Thyme

Thymus vulgaris

Low-growing woody perennial valued for aromatic leaves; grows best in sunny, dry, well-drained soil.

Herb/medicinal crop

Oregano

Origanum vulgare

A bushy perennial culinary herb that prefers full sun and well-drained soil and tolerates heat and drought.

Herb/medicinal crop

Sage

Salvia officinalis

A short-lived semi-woody perennial with aromatic edible leaves; thrives in sun and medium-to-dry well-drained soil.

Herb/medicinal crop

Chamomile

Matricaria chamomilla

Annual aromatic herb bearing daisy-like flowerheads; prefers sun and moist-to-dry, well-drained sandy or loamy soil.

Herb/medicinal crop

Echinacea

Echinacea purpurea

Herbaceous perennial with long-blooming purple flowers; adaptable to soil and drought-tolerant once established.

Herb/medicinal crop

Ashwagandha

Withania somnifera

Warm-season medicinal shrub or herb grown for roots; prefers full sun and well-drained sandy soil.

Herb/medicinal crop

Stevia

Stevia rebaudiana

Tender perennial cultivated for sweet leaves; prefers sun, moist well-drained organic-rich soil, and moderate temperatures.

Herb/medicinal crop

Jojoba

Simmondsia chinensis

Desert-adapted shrub cultivated for seeds containing liquid wax; agricultural management information varies by production setting.

Industrial oilseed

Castor Bean

Ricinus communis

Castor is grown for distinctive industrial oil used in lubricant and chemical applications. Seed and plant materials are toxic if ingested and require careful handling.

Annual fiber crop

Kenaf

Hibiscus cannabinus

Kenaf is a warm-season annual grown for bast and core fiber, with applications including pulp, materials and absorbents. Management depends on climate and intended end use.

Perennial bast fiber

Ramie

Boehmeria nivea

Ramie is a perennial bast-fiber plant cultivated in tropical and temperate settings. Its strong bark fiber requires processing to remove gums and pectins before textile use.

Perennial fiber crop

Abaca

Musa textilis

Abaca is a banana relative grown for durable leaf-sheath fiber. Philippine guidance covers planting material, crop care, pests, harvest and fiber handling.

Perennial hard-fiber agave

Henequen

Agave fourcroydes

Henequen is a long-lived agave grown for hard leaf fiber used in cordage. Research discusses cultivation, water limitations and fiber production.

Perennial oil tree

Tung

Aleurites fordii

Tung is a tree crop whose seed oil is used as a fast-drying industrial oil. Production depends on orchard establishment and climate; cold injury to floral buds is a reported hazard.

Annual legume and industrial gum crop

Guar

Cyamopsis tetragonoloba

Guar is a warm-season annual legume grown for seed gum. Extension sources describe arid-region adaptation and greater disease pressure under humid conditions.

Annual oilseed crop

Chia

Salvia hispanica

Chia is grown for seed used as food and oil. Flowering response to day length and frost risk make cultivar choice and season length important for seed maturity.

Perennial multipurpose oil tree

Neem

Azadirachta indica

Neem is cultivated for seed oil, timber and other products. It is adapted to warm environments and can grow on a range of soils, including dry and nutrient-poor sites.

Perennial industrial shrub

Guayule

Parthenium argentatum

Guayule is a desert-adapted shrub researched as a source of natural rubber and resin. Deep and shallow roots exploit stored soil water and brief desert rainfall.

Winter oilseed crop

Lesquerella

Physaria fendleri

Lesquerella is a winter oilseed crop studied in the Southwest. Its hydroxylated seed oil has potential industrial uses including lubricants, coatings and plastics.

Annual oilseed and aromatic crop

Perilla

Perilla frutescens

Perilla is an annual aromatic crop grown for seed oil, edible leaves and essential oil. Cultivated perilla should be distinguished from escaped or weedy populations.

Perennial forage legume

Alfalfa

Medicago sativa

Alfalfa is a perennial forage legume best established on deep, well-drained soils, not a putting-surface turfgrass.

Perennial forage legume

Birdsfoot Trefoil

Lotus corniculatus

A perennial forage legume valued in grass pastures for summer growth and as a non-bloating grazing legume; establishment can be slow and drought limits persistence.

Perennial forage legume

Alsike Clover

Trifolium hybridum

A true clover used in forage systems; the cited Minnesota guide identifies its characteristic trifoliolate leaf arrangement and includes it among perennial forage legumes.

Cool-season annual legume

Fava Bean

Vicia faba

An erect cool-season legume grown for edible seed and livestock feed, and also used as a nitrogen-fixing cover crop; moisture and mild temperatures support production.

Warm-season annual pulse legume

Lima Bean

Phaseolus lunatus

Lima bean is a warm-season legume grown for its edible seeds; crop-specific water, salinity, drought, and pest advice requires dedicated local production guidance.

Warm-season annual pulse legume

Bambara Groundnut

Vigna subterranea

A tropical African pulse legume cultivated for its subterranean pods and seeds; the South African production guideline covers cultivation, irrigation, pest control, and disease control.

Warm-season annual forage and cover legume

Lablab

Lablab purpureus

A vining tropical legume used as forage, hay, silage, pulse, and green manure; the USDA guide describes it in mixed-cropping and cover-crop systems.

Warm-season annual legume

Sunn Hemp

Crotalaria juncea

A fast-growing warm-season legume used for forage, green manure, and cover; its biomass and nitrogen accumulation can support soil improvement and erosion control.

Perennial woody forage legume

Leucaena

Leucaena leucocephala

A woody legume used in tropical forage systems and as a soil-building species; specific agronomic management and crop health details are not established by the sources verified for this profile.

Warm-season annual legume

Sesbania

Sesbania herbacea

Common sesbania was evaluated by USDA-NRCS as a warm-season cover-crop legume; the Florida study reports moderate biomass production and less dense stands than some tested species.

Annual cool-season legume

Common Vetch

Vicia sativa

Common vetch is an annual nitrogen-fixing cover crop that can also be grown for animal forage; climbing growth benefits from companion plants and it can reseed aggressively.

Tropical forage legume

Tropical Soybean (Aeschynomene)

Aeschynomene spp.

Aeschynomene is a tropical forage-legume group; the cited broad legume production material does not document species-level identification or management for this requested entry.

tree nut

Almond

Prunus dulcis

A deciduous stone-fruit relative grown for its edible kernel; flowering and fruit set are vulnerable to frost.

tree nut

Walnut (English)

Juglans regia

A deciduous nut tree also known as Persian or common walnut, grown for its flavorful kernel and shade.

tree nut

Pistachio

Pistacia vera

A deciduous, drought-adapted nut tree that requires suitable climate and pollination for reliable production.

tree nut

Pecan

Carya illinoinensis

A large deciduous hickory cultivated for its edible nut, with crop performance shaped by pollination, water and disease management.

tree nut

Hazelnut (Filbert)

Corylus avellana

A shrub or small tree grown for its edible nuts; cross-pollination and frost protection help support dependable production.

tree nut

Macadamia

Macadamia integrifolia

An evergreen subtropical tree cultivated for its rich, hard-shelled edible kernels.

tropical fruit

Banana

Musa spp.

A large perennial herb grown for its fruit; warm conditions and ample water support growth and bunch production. Crop performance depends on suitable climate, well-managed root-zone moisture, and monitoring for region-specific pests and diseases.

tropical fruit

Mango

Mangifera indica

A tropical evergreen fruit tree valued for its flavorful fruit and requiring warm conditions for successful flowering and fruiting. Crop performance depends on suitable climate, well-managed root-zone moisture, and monitoring for region-specific pests and diseases.

tropical fruit

Papaya

Carica papaya

A fast-growing tropical plant that bears fruit on a soft, usually single stem and is cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions. Crop performance depends on suitable climate, well-managed root-zone moisture, and monitoring for region-specific pests and diseases.

tropical fruit

Pineapple

Ananas comosus

A tropical bromeliad crop producing a single compact fruit on a rosette plant. Crop performance depends on suitable climate, well-managed root-zone moisture, and monitoring for region-specific pests and diseases.

tropical fruit

Guava

Psidium guajava

A tropical and subtropical fruit tree producing aromatic fruit eaten fresh or processed. Crop performance depends on suitable climate, well-managed root-zone moisture, and monitoring for region-specific pests and diseases.

vine fruit

Kiwifruit

Actinidia deliciosa

A deciduous climbing vine cultivated for its edible berries and typically managed with trellising. Crop performance depends on suitable climate, well-managed root-zone moisture, and monitoring for region-specific pests and diseases.

annual field crop

Soybean

Glycine max

Soybean is an annual agricultural crop used for oilseed and protein-rich food/feed crop. Adaptation, planting dates, irrigation needs, and pest pressure vary by region, soil, and cultivar; consult local extension guidance for field decisions.

annual field crop

Cotton

Gossypium hirsutum

Cotton is an annual agricultural crop used for fiber crop; seed and oil products. Adaptation, planting dates, irrigation needs, and pest pressure vary by region, soil, and cultivar; consult local extension guidance for field decisions.

annual field crop

Peanut (Groundnut)

Arachis hypogaea

Peanut (Groundnut) is an annual agricultural crop used for food legume; edible seed and oil. Adaptation, planting dates, irrigation needs, and pest pressure vary by region, soil, and cultivar; consult local extension guidance for field decisions.

annual field crop

Canola

Brassica napus

Canola is an annual agricultural crop used for edible oil and meal; canola oilseed. Adaptation, planting dates, irrigation needs, and pest pressure vary by region, soil, and cultivar; consult local extension guidance for field decisions.

annual field crop

Sunflower

Helianthus annuus

Sunflower is an annual agricultural crop used for edible oil, confectionery seed and bird feed. Adaptation, planting dates, irrigation needs, and pest pressure vary by region, soil, and cultivar; consult local extension guidance for field decisions.

annual field crop

Safflower

Carthamus tinctorius

Safflower is an annual agricultural crop used for oilseed for edible/industrial oil. Adaptation, planting dates, irrigation needs, and pest pressure vary by region, soil, and cultivar; consult local extension guidance for field decisions.

annual field crop

Flaxseed (Linseed)

Linum usitatissimum

Flaxseed (Linseed) is an annual agricultural crop used for linseed oil and fiber products. Adaptation, planting dates, irrigation needs, and pest pressure vary by region, soil, and cultivar; consult local extension guidance for field decisions.

annual field crop

Hemp (Industrial)

Cannabis sativa

Hemp (Industrial) is an annual agricultural crop used for fiber, seed, and other industrial products. Adaptation, planting dates, irrigation needs, and pest pressure vary by region, soil, and cultivar; consult local extension guidance for field decisions.

annual field crop

Chickpea (Garbanzo)

Cicer arietinum

Chickpea (Garbanzo) is an annual agricultural crop used for dry edible pulse and protein ingredient. Adaptation, planting dates, irrigation needs, and pest pressure vary by region, soil, and cultivar; consult local extension guidance for field decisions.

annual field crop

Common Bean (Dry Bean)

Phaseolus vulgaris

Common Bean (Dry Bean) is an annual agricultural crop used for dry edible beans and food products. Adaptation, planting dates, irrigation needs, and pest pressure vary by region, soil, and cultivar; consult local extension guidance for field decisions.

annual field crop

Lentil

Lens culinaris

Lentil is an annual agricultural crop used for dry edible pulse. Adaptation, planting dates, irrigation needs, and pest pressure vary by region, soil, and cultivar; consult local extension guidance for field decisions.

annual field crop

Field Pea

Pisum sativum

Field Pea is an annual agricultural crop used for dry pulse, forage and feed. Adaptation, planting dates, irrigation needs, and pest pressure vary by region, soil, and cultivar; consult local extension guidance for field decisions.

root vegetable

Garden Beet

Beta vulgaris

A cool-season crop grown for its edible swollen root and leafy tops. Root-zone moisture should be managed to support steady growth and usable harvest quality.

root and leafy vegetable

Turnip

Brassica rapa Rapifera Group

A cool-season brassica grown for its edible swollen root and greens. Root-zone moisture should be managed to support steady growth and usable harvest quality.

root vegetable

Parsnip

Pastinaca sativa

A biennial commonly cultivated as an annual for its edible first-year taproot. Root-zone moisture should be managed to support steady growth and usable harvest quality.

root vegetable

Celeriac

Apium graveolens var. rapaceum

A cultivated celery form grown for its enlarged edible stem base. Root-zone moisture should be managed to support steady growth and usable harvest quality.

root and leafy vegetable

Rutabaga

Brassica napus Napobrassica Group

A cool-weather brassica grown for its substantial edible root and greens. Root-zone moisture should be managed to support steady growth and usable harvest quality.

tuber crop

Jerusalem Artichoke

Helianthus tuberosus

A perennial sunflower relative cultivated for its edible underground tubers. Root-zone moisture should be managed to support steady growth and usable harvest quality.

perennial root crop

Horseradish

Armoracia rusticana

A perennial brassica grown for its pungent, edible roots used as a condiment. Root-zone moisture should be managed to support steady growth and usable harvest quality.

root crop

Burdock

Arctium lappa

A biennial whose long taproot is cultivated as an edible vegetable in some regions. Root-zone moisture should be managed to support steady growth and usable harvest quality.

bulb crop

Shallot

Allium cepa Aggregatum Group

A clumping allium grown for its clustered, flavorful bulbs and edible foliage. Root-zone moisture should be managed to support steady growth and usable harvest quality.

bulb and stem vegetable

Leek

Allium ampeloprasum

A cool-season allium grown for its long edible white pseudostem and leaves. Root-zone moisture should be managed to support steady growth and usable harvest quality.

fruiting vine

Chayote

Sechium edule

A vigorous perennial vine in warm climates, cultivated for its edible fruit and other parts. Root-zone moisture should be managed to support steady growth and usable harvest quality.

aquatic leafy vegetable

Water Spinach

Ipomoea aquatica

A fast-growing tropical leafy vegetable adapted to wet conditions. Root-zone moisture should be managed to support steady growth and usable harvest quality.

Deciduous fruit tree

Quince

Cydonia oblonga

Quince is a temperate pome fruit tree grown for aromatic fruit that is commonly cooked or processed; crop-specific irrigation thresholds are not supplied here.

Deciduous fruit tree

Mulberry

Morus spp.

Mulberries are deciduous trees bearing clustered, soft fruits; species and cultivar influence fruit color, flavor, and suitability for a garden or orchard.

Deciduous fruit tree

Jujube

Ziziphus jujuba

Jujube is a deciduous fruit tree producing small fruits that may be eaten fresh or dried; specific regional crop guidance is not established in the cited sources.

Deciduous understory fruit tree

Pawpaw

Asimina triloba

Pawpaw is a North American deciduous tree bearing soft, custard-like fruits; establishment benefits from attention to site conditions and consistent root-zone moisture.

Deciduous fruiting shrub

Sea Buckthorn

Hippophae rhamnoides

Sea buckthorn is a fruiting shrub whose orange berries are used in food products; site and cultivar selection should reflect local conditions.

Tropical palm fruit crop

Acai Palm

Euterpe oleracea

Acai is a tropical palm grown for its small, dark fruits; it is not a temperate-hardy orchard crop and requires a suitable warm climate.

Evergreen fruit tree

Jabuticaba

Plinia cauliflora

Jabuticaba is a subtropical fruit tree known for fruit borne directly on trunks and major branches; it is not generally suited to cold temperate orchards.

Evergreen fruiting shrub or small tree

Feijoa

Acca sellowiana

Feijoa, also called pineapple guava, is an evergreen shrub or small tree producing aromatic edible fruits; cultivar and climate suitability vary by location.

Deciduous fruiting vine

Hardy Kiwi

Actinidia arguta

Hardy kiwi is a vigorous perennial vine grown for small smooth-skinned fruit; trellising and suitable pollination arrangements are important orchard considerations.

Deciduous fruiting shrub or small tree

Cornelian Cherry

Cornus mas

Cornelian cherry is a hardy deciduous shrub or small tree producing red, cherry-like drupes that can be eaten or processed when ripe.

evergreen fruit tree

Jackfruit

Artocarpus heterophyllus

A tropical fruit tree grown for its large edible fruits; crop-specific water thresholds are not documented in the cited publications. Extension descriptions apply to the referenced regional context; local conditions and cultivar affect performance.

evergreen fruit tree

Durian

Durio zibethinus

A tropical fruit tree valued for its edible fruit; local cultivar and production details are not documented in the cited pages. Extension descriptions apply to the referenced regional context; local conditions and cultivar affect performance.

evergreen fruit tree

Lychee

Litchi chinensis

A tropical/subtropical fruit tree included in UF/IFAS tropical fruit crop references. Extension descriptions apply to the referenced regional context; local conditions and cultivar affect performance.

evergreen fruit tree

Rambutan

Nephelium lappaceum

A tropical fruit tree grown for its distinctive edible fruit; crop-specific irrigation thresholds are not documented in the cited pages. Extension descriptions apply to the referenced regional context; local conditions and cultivar affect performance.

evergreen fruit tree

Mangosteen

Garcinia mangostana

A tropical fruit tree; specific water and pest thresholds are not documented in the cited publications. Extension descriptions apply to the referenced regional context; local conditions and cultivar affect performance.

evergreen fruit tree

Longan

Dimocarpus longan

A tropical/subtropical fruit tree included in UF/IFAS tropical-fruit crop material. Extension descriptions apply to the referenced regional context; local conditions and cultivar affect performance.

deciduous fruit tree

Custard Apple

Annona squamosa

Sugar apple and atemoya are described as custard-like dessert fruits in UF/IFAS tropical fruit guidance. Extension descriptions apply to the referenced regional context; local conditions and cultivar affect performance.

evergreen fruit tree

Starfruit (Carambola)

Averrhoa carambola

Carambola grows best in sunny, well-drained sites; the fruit is juicy and star-shaped in cross-section. Extension descriptions apply to the referenced regional context; local conditions and cultivar affect performance.

evergreen fruit tree

Breadfruit

Artocarpus altilis

A tropical fruit tree; crop-specific irrigation, salinity and pest thresholds are not stated in the cited references. Extension descriptions apply to the referenced regional context; local conditions and cultivar affect performance.

evergreen fruit tree

Sapodilla

Manilkara zapota

A tropical fruit tree referenced in UF/IFAS tropical-fruit pest planning materials. Extension descriptions apply to the referenced regional context; local conditions and cultivar affect performance.

evergreen fruit tree

Rose Apple

Syzygium jambos

A tropical tree; crop-specific irrigation and salt-tolerance details are not documented in the cited pages. Extension descriptions apply to the referenced regional context; local conditions and cultivar affect performance.

fruiting vegetable

Tomato

Solanum lycopersicum

Tomato is a cultivated vegetable crop whose successful production depends on suitable local growing conditions, sound soil preparation, and timely management. The Utah State University guide provides crop-specific growing information; recommendations should be adapted to local climate and soils.

tuber crop

Potato

Solanum tuberosum

Potato is a cultivated vegetable crop whose successful production depends on suitable local growing conditions, sound soil preparation, and timely management. The Utah State University guide provides crop-specific growing information; recommendations should be adapted to local climate and soils.

root crop

Sweet Potato

Ipomoea batatas

Sweet Potato is a cultivated vegetable crop whose successful production depends on suitable local growing conditions, sound soil preparation, and timely management. The Utah State University guide provides crop-specific growing information; recommendations should be adapted to local climate and soils.

bulb crop

Onion

Allium cepa

Onion is a cultivated vegetable crop whose successful production depends on suitable local growing conditions, sound soil preparation, and timely management. The Utah State University guide provides crop-specific growing information; recommendations should be adapted to local climate and soils.

bulb crop

Garlic

Allium sativum

Garlic is a cultivated vegetable crop whose successful production depends on suitable local growing conditions, sound soil preparation, and timely management. The Utah State University guide provides crop-specific growing information; recommendations should be adapted to local climate and soils.

root crop

Carrot

Daucus carota

Carrot is a cultivated vegetable crop whose successful production depends on suitable local growing conditions, sound soil preparation, and timely management. The Utah State University guide provides crop-specific growing information; recommendations should be adapted to local climate and soils.

leafy vegetable

Lettuce

Lactuca sativa

Lettuce is a cultivated vegetable crop whose successful production depends on suitable local growing conditions, sound soil preparation, and timely management. The Utah State University guide provides crop-specific growing information; recommendations should be adapted to local climate and soils.

leafy vegetable

Spinach

Spinacia oleracea

Spinach is a cultivated vegetable crop whose successful production depends on suitable local growing conditions, sound soil preparation, and timely management. The Utah State University guide provides crop-specific growing information; recommendations should be adapted to local climate and soils.

brassica vegetable

Broccoli

Brassica oleracea var. italica

Broccoli is a cultivated vegetable crop whose successful production depends on suitable local growing conditions, sound soil preparation, and timely management. The Utah State University guide provides crop-specific growing information; recommendations should be adapted to local climate and soils.

brassica vegetable

Cabbage

Brassica oleracea var. capitata

Cabbage is a cultivated vegetable crop whose successful production depends on suitable local growing conditions, sound soil preparation, and timely management. The Utah State University guide provides crop-specific growing information; recommendations should be adapted to local climate and soils.

fruiting vegetable

Bell Pepper

Capsicum annuum

Bell Pepper is a cultivated vegetable crop whose successful production depends on suitable local growing conditions, sound soil preparation, and timely management. The Utah State University guide provides crop-specific growing information; recommendations should be adapted to local climate and soils.

fruiting vegetable

Eggplant

Solanum melongena

Eggplant is a cultivated vegetable crop whose successful production depends on suitable local growing conditions, sound soil preparation, and timely management. The Utah State University guide provides crop-specific growing information; recommendations should be adapted to local climate and soils.

Cool-season annual legume used for cover, green manure, and forage.

Crimson Clover

Trifolium incarnatum L.

Crimson clover provides seasonal soil cover and biologically fixed nitrogen when effectively nodulated. It commonly grows as a winter annual in mild climates, with adaptation and winter survival depending on planting date, cultivar, and temperature.

Cool-season annual nitrogen-fixing legume.

Hairy Vetch

Vicia villosa Roth

Hairy vetch is grown for nitrogen contribution, biomass, and soil protection, often alongside a cereal companion. Its relatively late development makes termination timing important when balancing biomass production against planting the following crop.

Cool-season annual field-pea legume used for cover and green manure.

Austrian Winter Pea

Pisum sativum L.

Austrian winter pea is a winter-adapted field-pea type grown for nitrogen fixation and readily decomposable biomass. The California NRCS publication explicitly identifies Austrian winter pea within its field-pea profile; performance and winter survival vary with environment and cultivar.

Fast-growing annual forage and green-manure legume, also called Egyptian clover.

Berseem Clover

Trifolium alexandrinum L.

Berseem clover produces nitrogen-rich biomass and can regrow after cutting when cultivar and management permit. It is generally moisture-demanding, and cold tolerance varies substantially among cultivars.

Deep-rooted annual or biennial legume group used for soil improvement and forage.

Sweet Clover

Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam.; white sweetclover is Melilotus albus Medik.

Sweet clover includes yellow and white species with annual or biennial forms, so species and cultivar identity matter. Deep rooting, drought adaptation, and nitrogen fixation make it useful for biomass production and soil improvement, but seed persistence and livestock feed safety require attention.

Prostrate, self-reseeding winter annual legume.

Subterranean Clover

Trifolium subterraneum L.

Subterranean clover is adapted to seasonal rainfall patterns with moist cool-season growth and dry summers. It buries seed-bearing structures near the soil surface, allowing annual regeneration when establishment conditions and grazing management are favorable.

Upright winter annual forage and soil-improving legume.

Arrowleaf Clover

Trifolium vesiculosum Savi

Arrowleaf clover is a relatively late-maturing annual used to extend spring forage production and contribute biologically fixed nitrogen. It favors well-drained soils, while hard seed can support regeneration but complicate establishment and volunteer management.

Small-seeded winter annual legume for cover, green manure, and forage.

Balansa Clover

Trifolium michelianum Savi

Balansa clover combines substantial biomass potential with tolerance of waterlogged soils and brief flooding. Its small seed and initially limited competitiveness make establishment management important, while cultivar maturity influences adaptation to seasonal moisture.

Annual forage and cover-crop legume with prostrate to semi-erect growth.

Persian Clover

Trifolium resupinatum L.

Persian clover produces palatable forage and can regrow well after grazing or cutting. Subspecies and cultivars differ in moisture adaptation, so irrigated, higher-rainfall, and dryland uses should not be treated as interchangeable.

Annual nonlegume broadleaf cover crop and insectary plant.

Phacelia

Phacelia tanacetifolia Benth.

Phacelia provides flowering habitat for pollinators while capturing existing soil nitrogen and protecting the soil surface. It does not fix atmospheric nitrogen, and its establishment and biomass production depend on planting method, season, and moisture availability.

Fast-growing warm-season annual nonlegume broadleaf cover crop.

Buckwheat

Fagopyrum esculentum Moench

Buckwheat fits short warm-season cover-crop windows, producing rapid cover and flowers attractive to beneficial insects. It recycles nutrients rather than fixing nitrogen, and timely termination is important because seed production can follow flowering quickly.

Cool-season annual or short-lived grass used for cover and forage.

Annual Ryegrass

Lolium multiflorum Lam.

Annual ryegrass develops extensive roots and seasonal cover that help capture residual nitrogen and reduce erosion. It is distinct from cereal rye, and its potential for difficult termination, herbicide resistance, and volunteer establishment warrants careful management.

Tropical deciduous hardwood plantation tree grown for durable timber.

Teak

Tectona grandis L.f.

Teak performs best on deep, fertile, well-drained soils in warm climates with distinct wet and dry seasons. Plantation productivity and timber quality depend strongly on planting material, early weed control, thinning and protection from fire and defoliators.

Fast-growing evergreen hardwood plantation tree; this entry represents rose gum rather than all eucalypts.

Plantation Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus grandis W.Hill ex Maiden

Plantation eucalyptus encompasses multiple species and hybrids with different climatic and water tolerances; this reference entry is specifically for Eucalyptus grandis. It favors deep, freely drained soils, and successful production depends on appropriate provenance or clone selection, establishment management and pest protection.

Fast-growing deciduous broadleaf tree cultivated for lightweight specialty timber.

Paulownia

Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) Steud.

Paulownia timber production requires careful site selection and sustained early management rather than reliance on rapid growth alone. The cited extension publications discuss establishment and plantation care, but their market statements are historical and should not be treated as current price or profitability forecasts.

Deciduous coppice shrub or small tree grown for flexible basketry rods.

Basket Willow

Salix viminalis L.

Basket willow is commonly cultivated as a repeatedly harvested coppice crop to produce long, flexible shoots. Moisture availability, weed management and harvesting practices influence rod yield and quality, while basketry plantations should not be assumed to share all management requirements of biomass-willow hybrids.

Evergreen root-hemiparasitic plantation tree grown for aromatic heartwood and oil.

Indian Sandalwood

Santalum album L.

Indian sandalwood requires compatible host plants because it obtains resources through root attachments. Plantation management must balance host support, sufficient light and drainage; drought resistance does not eliminate establishment-water needs or the consequences of poor host management.

Evergreen nitrogen-fixing coastal plantation tree grown for poles, fuel and shelter.

Casuarina

Casuarina equisetifolia L.

Casuarina equisetifolia is adapted to many sandy coastal environments and forms nitrogen-fixing associations with Frankia. Good drainage remains important despite its coastal distribution, and salt-spray exposure should not be equated with unlimited tolerance of saline irrigation or prolonged saturation.

Fast-growing tropical deciduous hardwood plantation tree.

Gmelina

Gmelina arborea Roxb.

Gmelina is cultivated for timber and fiber on sites where moist, fertile, freely drained soils support rapid growth. Nursery hygiene, early competition management and protection from stem-damaging pests are important for establishing productive plantations.

Evergreen nitrogen-fixing plantation tree grown for tannin-rich bark and wood.

Black Wattle (Acacia)

Acacia mearnsii De Wild.

Black wattle is an Australian tree widely planted for bark tannins, pulpwood and fuel. It favors moist, well-aerated soils but is strongly invasive in some regions, making legal status and containment central considerations before establishment.

Deciduous nitrogen-fixing hardwood grown in moist temperate forestry systems.

Red Alder

Alnus rubra Bong.

Red alder is a fast-growing, shade-intolerant pioneer native to the Pacific coast of North America. Productive management favors suitable moisture conditions, adequate growing space and timely stand tending, while its nitrogen-fixing capacity can contribute to soil fertility.

Tropical rhizomatous perennial spice crop grown for aromatic capsules and seeds.

Cardamom

Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton

Green cardamom performs best in humid tropical environments with partial shade, organic-rich soil and good drainage. Reliable moisture during inflorescence formation and flowering is particularly important because later rainfall cannot compensate fully for drought damage during these stages.

Tropical evergreen tree managed as a coppiced bark spice crop.

Cinnamon

Cinnamomum verum J.Presl

True or Ceylon cinnamon is grown in warm, humid climates and harvested for its aromatic inner bark. Commercial management commonly uses repeated coppicing, with bark harvested when active growth makes it easier to separate from the wood.

Tropical evergreen tree spice crop harvested for dried immature berries.

Allspice (Pimento)

Pimenta dioica (L.) Merr.

Allspice is a tropical tree whose immature berries are dried to produce the familiar spice. It favors well-drained soils and a reasonably dependable rainfall supply, while flowering biology and the presence of suitable pollen sources matter for fruit production.

Annual seed spice and oil crop in the buttercup family.

Black Cumin (Nigella)

Nigella sativa L.

Nigella is grown for black aromatic seeds and is botanically distinct from cumin and caraway. It can be cultivated as a rainfed crop in suitable climates, with seed maturity and timely capsule harvest important for recovering the crop.

Annual herb and seed spice crop harvested as cilantro foliage or coriander fruits.

Coriander (Cilantro)

Coriandrum sativum L.

Coriander production differs according to whether the target is fresh foliage or mature dry fruits. Adequate water during juvenile growth supports establishment, while warm, dry ripening conditions favor fruit quality and drainage remains important throughout the crop.

Annual aromatic fruit spice crop in the carrot family.

Cumin

Cuminum cyminum L.

Cumin is cultivated for dry fruits commonly called seeds and generally suits a relatively cool, dry growing season with full sun. It is frost-sensitive, requires good drainage, and benefits from crop rotation because soilborne wilt and other diseases can limit production.

Aromatic herbaceous spice crop grown chiefly for fruits and foliage; some cultivars produce swollen leaf bases.

Fennel

Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

Fennel favors sunny sites, mild growing conditions and well-drained soils. Spice fennel is managed for aromatic fruits, whereas Florence fennel requires cultivar-specific management for its swollen leaf bases.

Annual aromatic herb and fruit spice crop.

Dill

Anethum graveolens L.

Dill is grown for fresh foliage, aromatic fruits and essential oil, with harvest timing determined by the intended product. Well-drained soil and an open canopy are important because prolonged wet conditions favor several destructive fungal diseases.

Annual or biennial aromatic fruit spice crop.

Caraway

Carum carvi L.

Caraway includes annual spring types and biennial winter types, so flowering and harvest schedules depend on the cultivar. It is chiefly cultivated for aromatic fruits, with crop rotation and careful harvest timing important for reducing disease and shattering losses.

Annual aromatic fruit spice crop distinct from star anise.

Anise (Pimpinella)

Pimpinella anisum L.

Anise is an annual herb grown mainly for sweet, aromatic fruits used as a spice and oil source. It requires a sufficiently long frost-free season and performs best in sunny conditions with deep, friable soil.

Evergreen tree spice crop grown for star-shaped aromatic fruits.

Star Anise

Illicium verum Hook.f.

Chinese star anise is cultivated in cooler tropical and subtropical environments for its distinctive aromatic fruits. Published ecological requirements remain relatively limited, and species authentication is essential because other Illicium species can be toxic.

Evergreen shrub or tree grown for aromatic culinary leaves.

Bay Laurel

Laurus nobilis L.

Bay laurel is a Mediterranean woody perennial adaptable to a broad range of well-drained soils. It can be maintained by pruning for leaf production, but persistent waterlogging and severe frost can cause significant damage.

Perennial climbing cactus grown for fleshy edible fruit.

Dragonfruit (Pitaya)

Selenicereus undatus (Haw.) D.R.Hunt; cited publications use the synonym Hylocereus undatus (Haw.) Britton & Rose. Other species and hybrids also produce dragonfruit.

Dragonfruit is a tropical American climbing cactus cultivated in warm regions. Soil-grown plants require strong support, good drainage and attention to cultivar-specific pollination requirements; being a cactus does not eliminate its need for water during productive growth.

Short-season annual cereal grass grown for grain and feed.

Proso Millet

Panicum miliaceum L.

Proso millet is a rapidly maturing cereal suited to short growing seasons and water-limited production. Its low moisture requirement makes it useful where longer-season grains are unreliable, although establishment and harvest timing remain important.

Warm-season annual cereal grass used for food grain and forage.

Foxtail Millet

Setaria italica (L.) P.Beauv.

Foxtail millet is a small-grained cereal used in rainfed, relatively low-water production systems. Its short crop cycle and food-processing versatility make it useful in diversified dryland agriculture, while disease pressure and maturity vary with cultivar and environment.

Annual small-grain cereal cultivated primarily for food.

Kodo Millet

Paspalum scrobiculatum L.

Kodo millet is cultivated in rainfed small-millet systems, including relatively low-input dryland agriculture. Cultivar choice, early weed control and timely harvesting influence performance; published regional planting practices should not be treated as universal prescriptions.

Short-season annual small-grain food cereal.

Little Millet

Panicum sumatrense Roth

Little millet is a traditional cereal grown in rainfed small-millet systems. Its relatively short duration and low-water adaptation support its role in dryland food production, with establishment, weeds and seed-associated diseases requiring attention.

Annual small-grain cereal; a common-name crop group containing more than one cultivated species.

Barnyard Millet

Echinochloa frumentacea Link; the common name also encompasses Japanese barnyard millet, Echinochloa esculenta (A.Braun) H.Scholz.

Barnyard millet is cultivated for grain in small-millet farming systems, including rainfed production in India. The common name is taxonomically ambiguous, so seed identity should be confirmed before transferring management recommendations between Indian and Japanese barnyard millets.

Tropical perennial aroid grown as a starchy corm and cormel crop.

Cocoyam (Xanthosoma)

Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott; cultivated Xanthosoma taxonomy is not fully resolved.

Xanthosoma cocoyam, also called tannia, is a vegetatively propagated tropical food crop grown for underground storage organs and, in suitable cultivated forms, cooked leaves. It benefits from adequate moisture and drainage and should not automatically be managed as flooded taro.

Tropical rhizomatous perennial grown for edible starch.

Arrowroot

Maranta arundinacea L.

True or West Indian arrowroot is grown for starch extracted from its underground rhizomes. It is adapted to warm, moist conditions and can tolerate partial shade; its management should not be confused with other crops also called arrowroot.

Perennial giant herb cultivated for starchy pseudostem and corm tissues.

Enset (Ethiopian Banana)

Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman

Enset is a domesticated Ethiopian staple crop harvested mainly for its pseudostem and corm rather than banana-like fruit. Its perennial growth, flexible harvest timing and drought resilience support food security, although bacterial wilt and other production constraints remain important.

Perennial tropical leafy vegetable shrub.

Chaya

Cnidoscolus aconitifolius (Mill.) I.M.Johnst.

Chaya is a heat-tolerant leafy shrub native to Mexico and Central America, commonly maintained through repeated leaf harvesting. It is propagated readily from cuttings and tolerates variable rainfall, but leaves require proper cooking because raw tissues contain cyanogenic compounds.

Heat-loving perennial leafy vine, often grown as an annual.

Malabar Spinach

Basella alba L.

Malabar spinach is a tropical climbing vegetable unrelated to true spinach and useful for leaf production in hot weather. Warm conditions, adequate moisture and support encourage growth, while drought or short days can promote flowering and reduce leaf eating quality.

Warm-season annual cucurbit vine grown for immature edible fruit.

Bitter Gourd

Momordica charantia L.

Bitter gourd is a frost-sensitive climbing vegetable cultivated across warm regions for its distinctive immature fruit. It benefits from fertile, well-drained soil, suitable moisture and trellising, with crop protection and frequent harvest important for marketable production.